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- From: dr303@cleveland.Freenet.Edu (Jim I. Walker)
- Newsgroups: alt.drugs
- Subject: The Dangers Of Psychedelics
- Message-ID: <2uqe3r$7mt@usenet.INS.CWRU.Edu>
- Date: 29 Jun 94 00:09:31 GMT
-
-
- just got done typing this out..
- The following is a transcript from _Drugs_And_Behavior_ (Fred Leavit, 1982)
- (I apoligize for the screwed up numbers of the references, this is because the
- same section of the book looks into other drugs and puts all of the references
- to them in the same list, in alphabetical order)
-
- LSD AND RELATED HALLUCINOGENS
-
- ** Tolerance and Withdrawl
-
- Tolerance develops rapidly to LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin, and there
- is cross tolerance between them. Cross tolerance is not exhibited between
- these agents and dimethyltryptamine (DMT); and little is known about the
- development of tolerance to DOM (STP). There are no serious withdrawl
- symptoms.
-
- ** Adverse Effects
-
- CHROMOSOME DAMAGE. One of the major concerns about LSD stems from a 1967
- paper by Cohen et al. (29) that suggested that LSD damages chromosomes. Cells
- with damaged chromosomes are potentially dangerous to their bearer, because
- they may establish cancerous cell lines, and are dangerous to unborn children,
- because chromosomes carry the genetic message across generations.
- Dishotsky et al. (36) reviewed the results of 68 studies published between
- 1967 and 1970, that were concerned with the possibility of LSD-induced
- chromosome damage. The highlights of their paper are summarized and discussed
- below, but without the original references.
- The study by Cohen et al., and several studies which followed it, involved
- the addition of LSD to cell cultures. There are problems with this approach.
- First, the process of culturing cells stimulates them to enter a reproductive
- phase which is abnormal for them. Second, cells in tests tubes are extremely
- susceptible to chromosome breakage; aspirin, caffeine, water, and changes in
- temperature or oxygen pressure are some of the many agents which induce
- breakage of the same order of magnitude as LSD. Third, the type of breakage
- produced by LSD is different from that caused by known mutagenic or
- carcinogenic agents. Fourth, intact organisms have evolved metabolic and
- excretory systems to eliminate harmful substances, but these detoxification
- mechanisms are not available to cells in test tubes. Thus, cells have
- typically been exposed to very high doses for prolonged periods of time.
- Only four studies investigated chromosome breakage rates in humans before
- and after exposure to LSD. Only one of the studies was positive. Several
- studies reported higher breakage rates in users than in nonusers but, as has
- already been discussed ad nauseum, such studies do not allow for causal
- interpretation. Some unknown factor(s), such as serious childhood illness,
- may predispose people to chromosome damage ant to take LSD (see p. 176). One
- obvious factor is that LSD users are likely to use many other drugs as well.
- An additional problem is that breakage rates have been measured in white
- blood cells rather than in reproductive cells.
- Dishotsky et al. pointed out that chromosome damage was much more likely
- to occur in users of illicit LSD than in volunteers administered known
- quantities of pure LSD in laboratories. The probable explanation is that
- illicit LSD contains substantial quantities of adulterants (85 and below), and
- these may cause breakage. In several cases, breakage rates returned to the
- normal range withing months of the last dose.
- As is so disturbingly often the case, the research may tell more about
- bias in science than about LSD and chromosome damage. Investigators who
- reported more than one study tended to report the same findings in each.
- Negative findings may have resulted from small sample size or insensitive
- testing procedures; for even if LSD affects chromosomes, the effects will not
- show up unless tested with proper experimental procedures. There is evidence
- that the negative studies used too few subjects; thus, although only five of
- fifteen studies yielded statistically significant results,* LSD users had
- nonsignificant but elevated breakage rates in 10 of the studies.
-
- * Statistical significance refers to the probability that observed differences
- between two or more groups are due to chance factors. Scientists
- conventionally accept research as being statistically significant if the
- likelihood that differences are due to chance is less than 1 in 20. If too
- few subjects are used, the results will not be statistically significant,
- no matter how strong the drug effect (just as , if a two-headed coin is
- flipped only four times, the flipper would not be able to conclude on
- statistical grounds that the coin is biased). Conversely, if huge numbers
- of subjects are used, even trivial differences will attain statistical
- significance (which, remember, means only "not due to chance"), but such
- results may have little scientific significance.
-
- There have been studies since the Dishotsky et al. paper. In general,
- these show no effect of LSD on chromosomes (42, 81, 111, 122).
-
- ACUTE PANIC REACTIONS. Not all drug experiences turn out as anticipated.
- Acute panic reactions, depression, paranoia, and psychotic episodes occur
- with sufficient frequency to make the phrase "bad trip" and important part of
- the lexicon of the drug culture. Any potentially enjoyable event may prove to
- be a disappointment, as when rainy weather spoils a picnic. But the special
- quality of drug-induced bad trips is that they cannot easily be terminated.
- Cohen (31) reported that one of 2500 patients taking LSD during psychotherapy
- committed suicide; and 0.02% of normal subjects who took LSD experimentally
- experienced psychotic reactions of greater than 24 hours in duration. Louria
- (82) used the suicide as reason for condemning the therapeutic use of LSD, a
- position that ignores the possibility that the suicide rate of patients in
- therapy and not given LSD may be higher than one in 2500.
-
- FLASHBACKS. Flashbacks are sudden and unexpected recurrences of aspects of an
- earlier drug experience. In a study of 2256 Army enlisted men, 23% reported
- flashbacks from LSD (5% from amphetamine, 1% from marijuana) (132).
- Flashbacks have not been shown to be dangerous and, in fact, are often self-
- induced. Matefy et al. (87) quoted one user: "I just call it talking yourself
- into a flashback.....It's like getting high all over again."
-
- PROLONGED PSYCHOTIC REACTIONS. Pradhan and Hollister (103) stated that fewer
- than 1 per 1000 experimental LSD subjects, and fewer than 2 per 1000 patients
- who ingest LSD, suffer psychotic reactions lasting longer than 48 hours.
- Approximately two-thirds of those who do suffer such reactions present a
- history of psychopathology prior to drug use (11). LSD is often taken in a
- last-ditch effort to solve and impending crisis which has proven refractory
- to other attempts at solution (46). If the drug does not help, symptoms may
- worsen, but not because of the LSD. The data do not justify arguments that
- LSD is extremely dangerous "because of its capability to induce attempted or
- completed homicide, attempted suicides, or even prolonged psychosis" (82, p.
- 254).
-
- CEREBRAL DEFICIT. Some authors have reported permanent cerebral deficit in
- LSD users. Others, however, have disputed the findings (1, 144). In any
- event, there are no relevant experimental studies, but only comparisons of
- users with nonusers.
-
- ** Benefitial Effects
-
- Many users of LSD wax lyrical about its ability to promote insights into
- everyday problems, to enhance creativity, and to provide mystical and
- religious experiences. These claims are evaluated in appropriate chapters.
-
-
- REFERENCES
-
- 1. Acord, L. & Barker, D. Hallucinogenic drugs and cerebral deficit. J.
- Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1973, 156: 281-283.
- 11. Blumenfield, M. & Glickman, L. Ten months experience with LSD users
- admitted to county psychiatric receiving hospital. NY State J. Med.,
- 1967, 67: 1849 - 1853.
- 29. Cohen, M., Marinello, M., & Back, N. Chromosomal damage in human leuko-
- cytes induced by lysergic acid diethylamide, Science, 1967, 155: 1417 -
- 1419.
- 31. Cohen, S. Lysergic acid diethylamide: side effects and complications.
- J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1960, 130: 30 - 40.
- 36. Dishotsky, N. et al. LSD and genetic damage. Science, 1971, 172: 431 -
- 440.
- 42. Fernandez, J. et al. LSD. . . an in vivo retrospective chromosome study.
- Ann. Hum. Genet., 1973, 37: 81 - 91.
- 46. Glickman, L. & Blumenfield, M. Psychological determinants of "LSD reac-
- tions." J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1967, 145: 79 - 83.
- 81. Long, S. Does LSD induce chromosomal damage and malformation? A review
- of the literature. Teratology, 1972, 6: 75 - 90.
- 82. Louria, D. Abuse of lysergic acid diethylamide--an increasing problem. In
- Wilson, C. (Ed.) Adolescent Drug Dependence. New York: Pergamon, 1968
- 85. Marshman, J. & Gibbins, R. The credibility gap in the illicit drug
- market. Addictionsm 1969, 16: 22 - 25.
- 87. Matefy, R., Hayes, C., & Hirsch, J. Psychedelic drug flashbacks:
- Attentional deficits? J. Abnorm. Psych., 1979, 88: 212 - 215.
- 95. Naditch, M. Acute adverse reactions to psychoactive drugs, drug usage,
- and psychopathology. J. Abnorm. Psych., 1974, 83: 394 - 403.
- 103. Pradhan, S. & Hollister, L. Abuse of LSD and other hallucinogenic drugs.
- In Drug Abuse: Clinical Aspects and Basic Aspects. St. Louis: Mosby,
- 1977.
- 111. Robinson, J. et al. Chromosome aberrations and LSD: A controlled study in
- 50 psychiatric patients. Br. J. Psychiatr., 1974, 125: 238 - 244
- 122. Simmons, J., Sparkes, R., & Blake, P. Lack of chromosomal damaging
- effects by moderate doses of LSD in vivo. Clin. Genet., 1974, 5: 59 -
- 61.
- 125. Smith, D. & Mehl, C. An analysis of marijuana toxicity. In Smith, E.
- (Ed.) The New Social Drug. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970.
- 132. Stanton, M. & Bardoni, A. Drug flashbacks: Reported frequency in a
- military population. Am. J. Psychiatr., 1972, 129: 751 - 755.
- 144. Wright, M. & Hogan, T. Repeated LSD ingestion and performance on neuro-
- psychological tests. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1972: 432 - 438.
-
- --
- __ , , "The suppression of the natural human fascination with
- / \ ' / / altered states of consciousness and the present peril-
- |__/_/_/\/\__ _(_(_/ ous situation of all life on earth are intimately and
- (_/ causally connected." -Terence McKenna, *Food Of The Gods*
-
-
-